How to Identify Authentic and Trustworthy Antiquities

Antichità Bologna span the timeline of human history, from Palaeolithic cave paintings to Egyptian mummies and Greek sculpture. These ancient pieces are part of our shared cultural heritage and should be treated with care and respect.

Antiques

When buying antiques, be sure to buy from a reputable dealer who guarantees authenticity. This process is known as due diligence and is an essential part of the art trade.

Antiques are a fascinating part of history, connecting us with different cultures and eras. They can provide a sense of continuity and heritage, fostering a sense of pride and stewardship. In order to preserve these pieces for the future, it’s important to understand how to identify authentic and trustworthy antiques. One of the most critical factors is provenance, which provides a documented history of ownership and notable events. In addition to confirming an object’s authenticity, this process can also elevate the value of an antique and provide a detailed timeline.

Provenance is a term that refers to the history of an artifact or piece of furniture. It includes a description of the work’s ownership and journey, from its discovery or creation to its current owner. Provenance is a vital element of curatorial practice and ethical stewardship of museum collections. However, determining a work’s provenance can be challenging and time-consuming.

Many art historians have dedicated their careers to establishing and verifying provenance. The process can include examining historical records and consulting experts. It can also involve cross-referencing documentation and establishing a chain of custody. This process is particularly difficult when it comes to objects with uncertain or unknown histories, such as archaeological findings.

In recent years, provenance has become a major issue in the art market. The increasing awareness of illegal trading in antiquities has prompted greater diligence in establishing an object’s origin. This has led to a decline in the sale of items with questionable histories.

The provenance of an artifact or piece of jewelry is the story of how it was discovered, acquired, and sold or traded over the course of its lifetime. This information can be valuable for museums and private collectors as well. However, a work’s provenance can be complicated, especially when it is an ancient object that was looted or illicitly removed from its site.

Purchasing antique items from reputable buyers is the best way to ensure the safety and quality of your investment. These buyers will have extensive knowledge of the market and be able to help you find the perfect antiques for your collection. They will also advise you on how to care for your antiques and how to store them properly, ensuring that they retain their beauty and value.

Authenticity

There are many factors that determine the value of an antiquity. These include beauty, function, rarity and legality. However, authenticity is one of the most important factors. This is because most collectors buy antiquities to connect with the past, and this connection can only be legitimate if the object represents the original. Fakes and forgeries are prevalent in the art world, and many people find them difficult to distinguish from genuine pieces. This has prompted some collectors to limit their purchases to only items with certified provenance.

In addition to provenance, collectors should also consider the object’s history and where it was found. For example, if the item was recovered from a battlefield or in an excavation, it may be subject to a repatriation claim. Moreover, if the item is of particular cultural significance, it can attract high prices. This is especially true when the piece has been published in scholarly journals or exhibited at a museum.

Successful collectors take a strategic approach to building their collections. They develop expertise in a specific culture or time period and build relationships with dealers, scholars and other collectors. This allows them to recognize exceptional objects and maximize long-term appreciation. Exceptional antiquities can provide better market returns than other luxury investments over extended periods. They also offer the added benefit of cultural significance and personal satisfaction.

Antiques are a fascinating part of our heritage and are an integral component of the global art trade. But, as the market for these treasured pieces becomes more and more commodified, it is important to remember that they are not all created equal. It is crucial to work with reputable dealers who can help you navigate the risks of purchasing antiquities. You can start by searching for a dealer who belongs to a trade association such as the Antiquities Dealers Association (ADA) or LAPADA. These dealers are bound by a strict Code of Conduct and will have a wealth of knowledge about the ancient world.

Inheriting a collection of ancient artefacts is an exciting prospect, but it can come with a number of complex legal and ethical issues. Fortunately, with some careful research and expert guidance, these challenges can be easily managed.

Legality

Antiquities have long been traded between individuals and institutions. Some are acquired by museums and other art collectors for exhibition or research; others are bought by dealers who resell them to other buyers. In recent years, the trade in ancient art has become a significant part of the global economy, with many large dealers and institutions purchasing cultural heritage items for their collections. Despite this, the black market for antiquities remains a major problem. Buying these objects contributes to the funding of terrorists, as well as to destruction of archaeological sites and other treasured cultural heritage.

There are a number of laws that govern the trade in antiquities. While most of these laws are not strictly enforceable, they do set the standards for legality in the industry. A good dealer will be familiar with these laws and adhere to them. If they fail to do so, they can face prosecution and other penalties. Those who want to buy an antiquity should carefully examine the seller and the object before making any purchases. The best way to do this is to find a dealer who is a member of the International Association of Dealers in Antiques and abides by its Code of Conduct.

A common misconception is that if collecting antiquities is illegal, looting will stop. This is a false assumption. People will still dig for gold and other materials, often damaging or destroying archaeological sites in the process. Furthermore, poor people in source countries will continue to excavate their own property for monetary gain. The only way to end this is to establish a system of legal protection for cultural property.

The United States is currently working to establish such a system, and the US Senate recently overrode President Trump’s veto of a bill that would strengthen legal protection for cultural heritage. Among other things, the bill would make “antiquities dealers” subject to record-keeping and reporting requirements similar to those of banks, financial institutions, gold bullion dealers, and fine jewelry sellers.

In her article in the Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal, Leila Amineddoleh argues that federal regulation of museum acquisitions is essential. This would decrease the demand for black market antiquities and disrupt one of the channels that provides money to terrorist organizations. In addition, it would help prevent museums from being complicit in the illegal antiquities trade and increase the penalties for museums that violate the law.

Taxes

Antiques offer a connection to the past, and they can help people understand the culture of an era. This makes them valuable collector items and a source of inspiration for modern artists. They are also a symbol of history and a reminder of our collective memory, and therefore have a strong emotional resonance. Many antique pieces are unique and offer a sense of craftsmanship and memorability, which adds to their value. For these reasons, collecting antiquities is a rewarding hobby that can be highly addictive.

It is important to be sure that an antique is authentic before making a purchase. There are many fakes and illegally obtained artifacts in the market, and it is best to buy from a reputable dealer who will guarantee authenticity. Reputable dealers will belong to trade associations and work closely with museums. They will also be able to provide detailed provenance and documentation of an object’s history.

There is a lot of debate about whether it makes sense to tax the sale of antiques, and how to go about doing so. Some dealers argue that this would have a negative effect on the antiquities trade, and others suggest that it may be a useful way to boost archaeological field conservation efforts. The latter idea would involve channeling proceeds from the tax into a dedicated fund for protecting archaeological sites.

But there are many hurdles to imposing such a tax, including the fact that it would need to be collected by government agencies and audited for compliance. Also, a Pigovian tax would need to be carefully calibrated so that it falls most heavily on high-end objects, and that the revenue can be used for targeted enforcement against looting.

In addition, some experts have pointed out that a tax on the sale of antiques could be used to beef up forensic efforts in source countries. This is an important step in addressing the problem of illicit sales, and it could help prevent some of the smuggling that has been associated with the trade. Ultimately, it is vital that the archaeological community begins to engage with the antiquities trade, and that both parties work together to fight the appearance of fakes and looted items in the market.

Choosing a Roofing Contractor

Whether your roof needs repair, replacement, or just maintenance, you need a professional roofing contractor. Look for one with experience, positive reviews and manufacturer certifications.

Roofing

Roofing Contractor provides a clear, detailed estimate covering labor costs and materials. They also explain any additional costs that may arise and provide a timeline for the project.

Roofing is a complex and challenging field that requires specialized knowledge and expertise. Professional roofers have years of experience and undergo extensive training to learn the latest technologies in their field. They follow industry standards and use quality materials to deliver high-quality results. They are also knowledgeable about local building codes and manufacturer guidelines.

A professional roofing contractor is committed to providing superior customer service and will always work with their clients to meet their needs. They communicate clearly with their clients and provide regular updates throughout the project. They will also be transparent about any additional costs that may arise during the project.

Before hiring a contractor, ask for references and reviews from past customers. These can give you an idea of the contractor’s reliability and reputation. Choosing a contractor with positive customer feedback will ensure a smooth and satisfying project.

Look for a roofing contractor that is RCAT licensed and CTRCA vetted. These credentials indicate that the contractor is a responsible and reputable business owner who follows best practices in the roofing industry. They will also be insured and committed to safety, which is essential in this dangerous industry. Be wary of contractors who refuse to provide proof of insurance or workers’ compensation.

A good roofing contractor will pay attention to detail and will complete the job correctly the first time around. They will also be aware of any local building codes and manufacturer guidelines that apply to the roofing system they are installing. This will help prevent problems down the road and protect the health and safety of the household. Professional roofers are also experienced problem-solvers and will be able to identify issues that may require more extensive repairs.

Experience

When choosing a contractor, look for someone who has experience installing or repairing your specific roofing type. Ask about their previous projects and review customer feedback to determine if they were satisfied with the results. Experienced contractors are more efficient and will likely complete the project faster without sacrificing quality. They also know how to handle any problems that may arise during the job and can solve them quickly.

Professionalism in communication is another trait to look for in a contractor. A good contractor will communicate clearly throughout the estimation process and keep you informed as the project progresses. They will also be transparent about any additional costs that may arise during the project and work with you to find solutions that fit your budget.

Roofing work is dangerous, so be sure to hire a contractor who prioritizes safety and adheres to industry regulations. Ask about their safety protocols and training programs to ensure that you and your property are protected during the project. Also, check whether they have liability insurance and workers’ compensation insurance, as these will cover any property damage or medical expenses incurred by their employees during the project.

Manufacturer certification isn’t just a marketing gimmick; it is a sign of high-quality workmanship. Those who have earned a manufacturer’s certification have gone through extensive training and numerous roof installs and repairs. This demonstrates that they have the knowledge and skills necessary to provide high-quality workmanship and uphold the manufacturer’s warranty.

Lastly, it is important to choose a local contractor. This will help minimize any potential issues during the project, as they are familiar with local building codes and regulations. Additionally, they will be more easily accessible for any follow-up services or warranty claims. Moreover, local contractors are more familiar with the challenges that can affect roofing in your area. This means that they can offer better advice and recommendations on the type of roofing to use. This will ensure that your roofing is durable and lasts for a long time.

License

Roofing contractors install, repair or replace roofs. They work with materials that seal, waterproof and weatherproof structures. Those include asphaltum, pitch, tar, felt fabric, shingles, slate, cedar shakes, metal roofing systems and other roof coverings. Those working on roofs are expected to adhere to local and state codes, rules, and regulations in their work.

Those who are licensed are held to higher standards of professionalism, including meeting specific exam and experience requirements before being granted a license. This ensures the contractor has the necessary skill set to safely and effectively perform roofing tasks. It also allows clients to feel confident in their choice of roofing contractor and to be sure they are dealing with a legitimate professional.

Licensing requirements vary by state. Some, such as Florida and California, maintain rigorous statewide licensing systems with formal exams and background checks, while others have more basic registration requirements. Regardless of state regulations, it is always wise for a roofing contractor to be licensed where possible.

To obtain a roofer’s license, they must pass one or more tests that cover general trade knowledge, roofing techniques, safety practices and local building standards. Many states also require that applicants complete a training program or apprenticeship, which can often count towards their licensing requirements.

Having a roofing contractor’s license opens doors to larger projects and premium clients. It also allows a roofing contractor to offer financing options, which can make the services more affordable for homeowners. It’s also important to have a strong time management system in place, such as Invoice Fly, to track your work hours and meet state-specific licensing requirements. This will help you avoid late fees and penalties. Getting a license takes time and effort, but it’s worth it in the long run. It shows that you take your career seriously and are committed to the highest standards of professionalism. It also makes you more competitive in a crowded market. For more information about becoming a licensed roofer, contact your state’s roofing association or visit its website. There, you can find out more about the specific requirements for your area.

Insurance

A roofing contractor should have a variety of insurance coverage to protect their business. They should have general liability insurance, workers’ compensation insurance and commercial auto insurance. Additionally, they should have a builder’s risk insurance policy to cover the construction site and all tools, equipment and materials from the start of the project until its completion. This type of insurance offers protection against damage caused by fire, theft, or weather events. It’s also a good idea for roofing contractors to carry inland marine insurance that covers all of their tools and equipment while they’re in transit or stored off-site. This insurance protects against losses and helps to keep a roofing company’s operations running smoothly.

Another important type of insurance for roofing contractors is professional liability insurance. This policy protects the roofing contractor against claims made by clients or customers for negligence and misrepresentation. It can also cover the cost of repairs or legal fees if a claim is made against them for errors in their work. Roofing contractors should also have pollution liability insurance to protect them from environmental damage. For example, if a roofing contractor leaks toxic chemicals into the soil or water supply, they could face costly cleanup costs. Mold related claims are also common and can be very expensive.

Lastly, roofing contractors should have a workers’ compensation insurance to protect themselves and their employees. If a worker is injured while working on a job, this coverage pays their medical bills and lost wages. It’s also a legal requirement in most states. Besides protecting the roofing contractor from lawsuits, this type of insurance shows the employer’s commitment to employee safety and well-being.

Roofing contractors should also have general liability insurance, which provides third-party bodily injury and property damage coverage. This coverage is indispensable, where damages can quickly add up. This type of insurance can also include personal and advertising injury coverage, which protects against claims for slander or libel. It can also include business interruption coverage, which reimburses the roofing contractor for lost revenue if their business is interrupted due to an insured event.

Criminal Defense Attorney Services for Strong Legal Representation

Facing criminal charges can be one of the most stressful and life-altering experiences a person can encounter. Whether it involves minor offenses or serious allegations, navigating the legal system without proper guidance can have severe consequences. Seasoned criminal defense attorney services provide individuals with the expertise, strategic insight, and support necessary to protect their rights, build a strong defense, and pursue the best possible outcome in their cases.

criminal attorney

The Role of a Criminal Defense Attorney

Criminal defense attorneys play a critical role in the justice system. Their primary responsibility is to advocate for clients accused of criminal conduct, ensuring that their rights are preserved throughout the legal process. This involves analyzing evidence, challenging procedural errors, negotiating with prosecutors, and presenting persuasive arguments in court.

A seasoned attorney brings extensive knowledge of criminal law, court procedures, and legal strategies, which can make a significant difference in the outcome of a case. Their experience allows them to anticipate challenges, identify weaknesses in the prosecution’s case, and develop a defense tailored to the specific circumstances of each client.

Comprehensive Case Evaluation

One of the first steps a criminal defense attorney takes is a thorough evaluation of the case. This includes reviewing police reports, witness statements, and physical evidence. They may also interview witnesses, consult with experts, and assess the credibility of all information provided.

A comprehensive evaluation allows the attorney to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the case and determine the best legal strategy. Whether the goal is to negotiate a plea agreement, seek a dismissal, or prepare for trial, a careful analysis ensures that decisions are informed and effective.

Protecting Legal Rights

Individuals accused of crimes have fundamental rights that must be upheld, including the right to remain silent, the right to legal counsel, and the right to a fair trial. Seasoned criminal defense attorneys ensure that these rights are fully protected at every stage of the legal process.

For example, attorneys prevent unlawful searches, challenge improper arrests, and ensure that clients are not coerced into making statements that could be used against them. By safeguarding legal rights, attorneys help maintain fairness and prevent the prosecution from exploiting procedural mistakes.

Strategic Defense Planning

A strong defense begins with careful planning. Experienced criminal defense attorneys develop strategies tailored to the unique circumstances of each case. This can involve challenging the validity of evidence, questioning witness credibility, or identifying legal defenses such as self-defense, entrapment, or lack of intent.

Strategic planning also considers potential outcomes and prepares for different scenarios. Attorneys weigh the risks and benefits of trial versus plea negotiations, always aiming to achieve the most favorable resolution for their clients while minimizing potential penalties.

Courtroom Representation and Advocacy

Having a skilled attorney in the courtroom is crucial for ensuring a fair trial. Seasoned criminal defense attorneys are trained to present arguments clearly, cross-examine witnesses effectively, and respond to the prosecution’s claims with precision. Their experience allows them to anticipate objections, adapt strategies on the fly, and advocate persuasively before judges and juries.

Courtroom representation also provides reassurance for clients, who may feel overwhelmed by legal proceedings. Attorneys act as a source of guidance, helping clients understand what to expect and keeping them informed throughout the process.

Negotiation and Plea Agreements

Not all criminal cases proceed to trial. Experienced attorneys often negotiate with prosecutors to reach favorable plea agreements when appropriate. This process can reduce charges, minimize penalties, or offer alternative sentencing options.

Negotiation requires a deep understanding of the law, local court practices, and prosecutorial tendencies. Seasoned attorneys leverage this knowledge to achieve outcomes that protect clients’ interests while avoiding unnecessary risk or prolonged litigation.

Post-Trial Support

The role of a criminal defense attorney does not end when a trial concludes. They also provide support during post-trial proceedings, including sentencing hearings, appeals, and record expungement processes.

For example, attorneys may argue for reduced sentences, seek alternatives to incarceration, or assist clients in clearing their criminal records when legally permissible. This ongoing support helps clients move forward while mitigating the long-term impact of a criminal conviction.

Specialized Knowledge and Experience

Criminal law encompasses a wide range of offenses, from misdemeanors to felonies. Seasoned criminal defense attorneys bring specialized knowledge and experience in handling different types of cases, including theft, assault, drug offenses, white-collar crimes, and more.

Their familiarity with local courts, judges, and prosecutors also gives them insight into how cases are likely to proceed. This expertise allows them to craft defense strategies that are both realistic and effective, increasing the likelihood of positive outcomes.

Building Trust and Client Relationships

Effective criminal defense relies on trust between the attorney and the client. Experienced attorneys take the time to listen, answer questions, and provide honest assessments of the case. This transparent communication helps clients make informed decisions and feel confident that their legal matters are in capable hands.

By establishing a strong attorney-client relationship, defense attorneys create an environment in which clients feel supported, understood, and empowered throughout a challenging legal process.

Facing criminal charges is a serious matter that requires expert legal guidance. Seasoned criminal defense attorney services provide comprehensive support, from case evaluation and legal strategy to courtroom representation and post-trial assistance. Their experience, knowledge, and advocacy skills are essential for protecting rights, minimizing penalties, and pursuing the most favorable outcomes.

Whether dealing with minor offenses or complex felony charges, working with an experienced criminal defense attorney ensures that individuals receive strong legal representation tailored to their unique circumstances. With the right support, clients can navigate the legal system with confidence, knowing their case is handled by a dedicated professional committed to achieving the best possible results.

How to Prove Liability After a Car Accident

Auto Accident Lawyer Colorado Springs

In car accident cases, proving liability is essential for successful insurance claims. Fault plays a critical role in awarding compensation for medical expenses, property damage, and other damages.

New York operates under a no-fault system, so it’s important to show that a specific act of negligence directly caused your injuries. An experienced Long Island auto accident lawyer can help you do this. Visit Auto Accident Lawyer Colorado Springs for more information.

Gathering Evidence

While the aftermath of a car accident is very stressful, you should not neglect to gather and preserve important evidence that could prove your case. Without solid evidence, you may not receive the full compensation for your injuries and damages. The best car accident evidence includes photographs, video and witness statements. You can also gather physical evidence such as skid marks and property damage estimates. You should not delay in collecting this information as memories fade, physical evidence can disappear and surveillance footage might get deleted.

Witness statements can add credibility to your claims, and it is often most effective to collect these accounts as soon as possible while the events are fresh in their minds. If you can, try to gather their name and contact information so that you can follow up with them. You can also use a personal log to record your own account of the crash, including details such as weather conditions at the time and how the collision occurred.

It is also a good idea to collect all medical documentation related to your injuries, which can include appointment letters and receipts as well as diagnoses and treatment plans. Keeping these records can help you prove your damages, which include the cost of medical care and lost wages. You should also keep copies of any vehicle repair estimates that you receive for your damaged car.

Having a plethora of car accident evidence can help you settle your claim more quickly, especially if it is clear that another party is responsible for the incident. For example, if you can prove that the other driver was distracted by their cell phone at the time of the accident, it could provide solid proof that they are liable for your injuries.

Moreover, expert witnesses can help clarify technical details of the accident and determine fault. For example, an accident reconstruction expert can analyze physical evidence and recreate the crash to determine how it happened. Lastly, an economic specialist can calculate your losses, including future lost earnings and medical expenses. Footage from dashcams or nearby business cameras can also provide unbiased documentation of what actually took place.

Collecting Witnesses’ Statements

As a form of objective third-party evidence, witness statements are critical in car accident cases. They provide a clear picture of what occurred during the crash and can help prove liability. However, gathering witness statements can be challenging, especially after a collision.

Fortunately, an experienced car accident attorney knows how to approach witnesses in order to get the information necessary for a strong case. The following are some tips to keep in mind when obtaining these important statements.

Begin by interviewing witnesses at the accident scene as soon as possible. This is the best time to gather valuable information because witnesses’ memories can fade over time, and they may forget small details or misremember events.

Ask for their name and contact information. Witnesses who have this information can be contacted later and are more likely to be willing to share their account of the accident in detail. Witnesses’ statements are also unbiased, meaning they can help support your position and challenge opposing claims.

Getting witnesses’ statements is essential because police reports can be biased and may not always be accurate. In addition, a police officer’s testimony is limited by what they can see at the scene of the accident. Witness statements provide more details and can be used to confirm other evidence such as skid marks, traffic cameras, or surveillance footage.

Witnesses’ statements can also provide insight into the causes of an accident. They can highlight driving violations such as speeding, failing to yield, or running a red light. These violations can be used to establish negligence, which is one of the elements in a successful personal injury claim.

Injured parties must prove that another party is responsible for the accident and must be held accountable to recover damages. This requires collecting facts, understanding the law, and presenting clear evidence. Without a strong case, an injured person is more likely to be denied the compensation they deserve.

At Andrews, Bernstein & Maranto, PLLC, we understand how complex and frustrating a car accident can be. We are committed to helping injured victims recover their due justice, including compensation for their medical bills, property damage, lost wages, and emotional distress. Contact us to learn how our New York auto accident attorneys can assist you.

Obtaining a Police Report

A police accident report is an official document that provides important details about a crash, such as the date and approximate time of the incident. It can also provide details about the people involved in the crash, such as their names and addresses. It can also list the make, model and plate number of the vehicles that were involved in the collision. A police report will also include the officer’s observations and comments on the scene, including weather conditions and road conditions. A police report can help you prove your case to the insurance company or to a court of law if you decide to file a lawsuit.

In many cases, a car accident will happen because someone violates traffic laws. For example, they may fail to stop at a red light or turn signal or drive over the speed limit. If the police arrive at the scene of a crash, they can review the evidence and determine fault based on their observation of what occurred.

You should always get a copy of the police accident report, regardless of whether you want to file a lawsuit or not. You can request it from the NYPD’s online system or by mail using Form MV-198C. The process of obtaining a report can take up to 30 days, but it will likely be available sooner if you retrieve it in person at the precinct where the crash happened. There is usually a nominal fee to access a crash report, which you can pay with a credit card or money order.

It is often helpful to get witness statements from third parties who were not involved in the accident. They can provide different perspectives and corroborate or contradict the facts that you have presented in your own evidence. In addition, they can point out physical evidence such as skid marks that you might not be able to see on your own after the crash.

In some states, such as New York, you will need to prove that another party was at fault for the crash in order to receive compensation for your losses. If the accident victim was even 1 percent at fault for the crash, they will be barred from receiving any financial recovery.

Getting Medical Attention

Ultimately, proving liability requires careful consideration of the facts in your case. Your lawyer can help you navigate the complexities of New York’s laws and build a strong case to secure the compensation you deserve for your injuries. Different types of accidents require different approaches to prove fault. For example, in car accident cases, evidence such as police reports and witness statements may play an important role. In some cases, expert witnesses may also be called in to provide testimony. Other cases, like those involving slip-and-fall accidents or medical malpractice, may depend on evidence of the failure to meet a standard of care in a particular field.

In the immediate aftermath of a car accident, it can be hard to remember that what you do or say could impact your ability to recover compensation later. Many people are too overwhelmed by the shock and fear of the event to take steps that would improve their chances of a successful claim.

The most crucial step is to get medical attention as soon as possible after the crash. Even if you do not feel injured or appear to be uninjured, it is essential that you go to the hospital or a clinic for a complete examination from a licensed physician. This will not only ensure your health, but will create a paper trail that can be used in your case later on to support any damages you may pursue for your injuries.

Your doctor will give you a diagnosis and will recommend a course of treatment for your injuries. It is essential that you follow these instructions exactly, and that you document your progress as well. Failure to do so could lead to a denial of your claim or a reduction in the amount of damages you receive.

After a car accident, the insurance company for the at-fault driver will likely begin a negotiation process to settle your claim. The insurance adjuster’s job is to protect the interest of their client and to pay out as little as possible to the victim. The insurance adjuster will try to find reasons and excuses to reduce your compensation or deny it altogether.